With the recent attention paid to AI because of large language tools such as ChatGPT, my title’s promise to describe change my surprise most educators. Tools for AI tutoring have been deployed and evaluated for some time. I provide a citation in support of this claim at the conclusion of this post. This paper is worth exploring because it offers insights into what has been meant by AI when applied to tutoring and even some insights into human tutoring. For example, I have often quoted the work of Bloom who argued that human tutors probably represented the ideal in teaching and suggested that dedicated intensive tutoring provided a two-standard deviation advantage to those tutored and this advantage represented the best educational interventions could accomplish. I have read the papers in which Bloom made this claim. Kulik and Fletcher offer a different interpretation explaining that Bloom’s data actually involved a combination of tutoring and a mastery approach and the mastery approach may have accounted for at least half of the benefit in this research. That aside, tutoring still offers learners a significant advantage.
Before AI was based on large language models, the AI involved in tutoring was based in a technology-supported system based on a model of what was to be learned, a model of the individual learner, a model of effective instructional strategies, and an interface allowing communication with the system. I had AI generate a description of what the researchers explained these three models involved.
Learner Model: This model represents the student’s knowledge, skills, and learning preferences. It helps the ITS to adapt its teaching strategies to the individual needs of the student.
Teacher Model: This model represents the teaching strategies and pedagogical knowledge used by the ITS to guide the student’s learning process. It helps the ITS to provide appropriate feedback, hints, and explanations.
Content Model: This model represents the subject matter being taught by the ITS. It includes the concepts, relationships, and problem-solving procedures relevant to the domain.
The Kulik review found generally positive benefits for the AI studies, but indicated impact was smaller when the dependent measure was a standardized test rather than local tests, the sample size was small, learners were from the lower grades, the subject was math, MC tests were used as the dependent variable, and the tool studied was Cognitive tutor. For those interested in this type of approach, the review identifies a number of the systems available for use.
My interest in the potential application of the AI tools now available takes a somewhat different approach and suggests that educators and researchers begin with an analysis of the techniques used in successful studying and tutoring and attempt to translate these techniques into tasks that students or educators can apply using AI. I purposefully focus on the research on studying as a general way to think about the cognitive activities of learners following initial experiences which could involve lectures, readings, or any observation of what happens in the world. Simply put, learning requires the processing of external experiences for understanding, retention, and application whether entirely internally and unaided or encouraged by additional external activities (e.g., taking notes, answering questions, discussions with a partner). The natural language capabilities of large language AI allow approximation of these external activities. I have attempted to demonstrate what some of the activities might look like in an earlier post.
My prediction is that companies serving the education market will quickly combine the type of AI approaches I have described here (the multi-model approach with the more flexible capabilities of large language models) because of the resources required to do so. You may already see the direction in which this is going be taking note of the efforts of the Kahn Academy (Kahnmigo).
I do think there are immediate opportunities to take advantage of the tools now available. One distinction that I think educators should consider involves whether activities are applied to the knowledge base used to train the models or applied to designated content. For example, you have ChatGPT ask you multiple choice questions about mitosis or you can ask some AI tools to ask you questions about a pdf or designated content about mitosis. My prediction about commercial ventures will likely be more like this second option as a textbook company would like to focus an AI tutoring approach focused on individual textbooks. There is nothing inherently wrong with either system. I do believe there are more errors when using the more general knowledge base. I also see advantages in controlling the scope of experiences to a designated body of content as a way to control the depth of the experiences. What I mean the discussion of mitosis in a sophomore biology class will be different than in a graduate class because the knowledge base would be different.
I have explored the use of ChatPDF (not ChatGPT) in engaging with the content of a pdf in a previous post. I have been exploring Mem.AI as a way to engage in similar interactions with notes I have taken within this service (you do need the $8 a month version). What I like about this system is that it allows a user to focus the AI prompts on specific material. For example, I could use the service to take class notes on a given day, tag these individual notes or a large page of notes with the date, and then write a prompt to engage with the content identified by this tag. I could also tag notes with a class identifier (PSY101) and then write prompts focused on this tag to review for exams covering more material. I have included several different types of interaction in the material that follows. This material includes my prompts and the AI responses.
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Me: Using only my knowledge base with tag generative, write a summary of the activities that are classified as generative. Include a list of notes providing this information.
Generative learning activities involve actively engaging with the material to create new knowledge and connections. Some key strategies that promote generative learning include summarization, teaching, self-testing, self-explaining, and notetaking with revision and elaboration. These strategies require learners to select and organize relevant information, elaborate on the material based on personal knowledge, and integrate new information with existing knowledge.
Here are the notes from your knowledge base with the tag “generative”:
These notes provide valuable insights into generative learning strategies and their effectiveness across different age groups, as well as the cognitive processes involved in these activities.
Me: Using only my knowledge base with tag june9, write a summary of the models the author described
Based on your knowledge base with the “june9” tag, here’s a summary of the models described by the author:
In the review by AlShaikh and Hewahi (2021), the authors discuss the development of Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) and their use of multiple models. These models include:
Learner Model: This model represents the student’s knowledge, skills, and learning preferences. It helps the ITS to adapt its teaching strategies to the individual needs of the student.
Teacher Model: This model represents the teaching strategies and pedagogical knowledge used by the ITS to guide the student’s learning process. It helps the ITS to provide appropriate feedback, hints, and explanations.
Content Model: This model represents the subject matter being taught by the ITS. It includes the concepts, relationships, and problem-solving procedures relevant to the domain.
These models work together to create a personalized learning experience for the student. However, the authors note that recent large language models and conversational approaches offer new possibilities for influencing learning without built-in strategies, which could be an important difference in the application of newer general tools.
Me: Using only my knowledge base with tag june9, write a multiple choice questions for me to answer.
Based on your knowledge base with the “june9” tag, here’s a multiple-choice question for you to answer:
In the context of Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) described by AlShaikh and Hewahi (2021), which of the following models is responsible for representing the student’s knowledge, skills, and learning preferences?
A. Learner Model B. Teacher Model C. Content Model D. Language Model
Me: A
That’s correct! The Learner Model in Intelligent Tutoring Systems is responsible for representing the student’s knowledge, skills, and learning preferences. Great job! If you have any more questions or need further clarification, feel free to ask.
References:
Kulik, J. A., & Fletcher, J. D. (2016). Effectiveness of intelligent tutoring systems: a meta-analytic review. Review of educational research, 86(1), 42-78.
Summer is a great time for educators to do a little reading and explore a bit in preparation for next Fall. Our grandkids are either out of school or will be within a week. The educators in our family are soon to have more time. I usually offer some suggestions for technology-related and classroom relevant summer explorations at about this time of the year.
I seem to be spending so much of my time lately exploring and writing about AI. It is hard to get away from this topic and the uncertainty related to applications and challenges. Everything about AI seems mysterious and as a consequence, unsettling. As I have written previously, I have been unable to find a book that provided the insights I felt I needed and my related recommendation was to explore a combination of personal experimentation and online blog posts and resources as most productive. What follows are recommendations based on this perspective.
I have divided my recommendations based on two goals. First, I want to understand a bit about how AI works and to understand general “how to do it” skills. I don’t like the feeling of not understanding how things work the way they do. Without some sense of understanding, I have trust issues. At the other extreme, I want specific recommendations I can implement. I want examples and variations on these examples I can apply to content and topics of my choosing.
Second, I want specifics related to applications in education.
Here are some recommendations related to the first goal. The content is free with the exception of the Udemy course which I have found useful. I tend to differentiate Google Bard applications from OpenAI applications in my explorations. It is worth spending some time with each, but because I have decided to use several OpenAI API applications (applications built on the model that AI approach used in ChatGPT) I pay to use, I am more experienced and have spent more time with OpenAI-related resources. Hence, I am more confident in these recommendations.
As an educator, you may or may not feel the need I feel to invest time in developing a sense of how and why. The following are sources specific to education. The resource from the Office of Educational Technology focuses on AI in education, but lacks the specifics I want. It is a reasonable overview of the potential of AI in education. I am also somewhat put off by the constant emphasis on the message that AI will not replace teachers and humans must remain in the loop, which I find obvious and unnecessary if there is a successful focus on useful applications. It seems there is a concern that those who would read the document in the first place need to be convinced.
I have included one blog post I wrote a couple of months ago. I added it because it is the type of effort I want to read because of the focus on how AI might be used for a specific educational goal. I cannot evaluate the quality of this offering, but I think efforts concerning concrete uses educators can try and/or assign now are the type of thing educators are looking for. I don’t believe in recipes, but my effort was intended to focus on opportunities to address a need and to encourage exploration. I think we are at this stage with AI use in classrooms and the summer is a good time to explore.
I am intrigued by large language AI applications, but I admit I am confused. It is not so much trying to understand at a deep level how these services do what they do. I gave up on investigating the “how” question long ago. I am confused by pricing. What am I likely to have to pay say six months from now when we get past the free experimental stage? I understand that ChatGPT Plus is $20 a month. This seems like a lot. What makes it seem like a lot is the price I pay for the various services I pay for as an API allowing access through some other service.
It has taken me some time even to figure out which AI activity I use through some service other than ChatGPT or Bard, I actually am paying for. I know I have an OpenAI API account (so Bard is not included) and I know I have had to generate and attach licenses to other services. I should have labeled the licenses from the start. That would have made identifying where my charges come from easier. However, whichever services generate a cost, I can’t seem to run up much of a bill.
I am not a heavy user of AI services, but I do spend time each day exploring. So far, my bill for the month is a nickel. If the rate for ChatGPT Plus is the same as for the API use, I can’t imagine what it would take to run up a $20 bill.
For the curious, the following is the OpenAI Usage page allowing users to set a limit. I originally thought this limit was just a sum I would allocate and then utilize, but it turns out it is the limit I set for myself for a month. Obviously, this is far too high, but you pay only for what you use (sounds like a television ad). I have no idea how usage fees will be set in the future, but for now you get a lot of activity for little money.
I have tried to find clear descriptions of fees online, but I cannot find a useful summary of pricing and options. I did finally decided just to ask ChatGPT.
What is the difference between OpenAI API prices and ChatGPT Plus?
OpenAI API prices and ChatGPT Plus are two different products, with different features and pricing models.
OpenAI API is an artificial intelligence platform that provides developers with access to a wide range of state-of-the-art models, including natural language processing, machine learning, and computer vision. OpenAI API pricing is based on usage, with different rates for each API endpoint. Developers are charged based on the number of requests made to the API, with pricing starting at $0.001 per request.
ChatGPT Plus, on the other hand, is a specific natural language processing tool that uses the GPT-3 language model. It is designed for chatbot development, and includes features such as sentiment analysis, entity recognition, and conversational response generation. ChatGPT Plus is priced per month, with different pricing tiers based on the number of API calls and the level of support provided.
In short, OpenAI API provides access to a wide range of AI models with pricing based on usage, while ChatGPT Plus is a specific chatbot development tool based on the GPT-3 model with monthly pricing.
I was listening to a recent podcast from This Week in Tech (TWIT) and the program began as so many podcasts I listen to recently with a lengthy discussion of AI. Part of the discussion concerned the role AI tools will likely play in the election of 2024. Besides the concern that AI would likely be used to produce credible “deep fakes” before the election, the discussants raised an issue I had not considered. They predicted that AI will make political messages of all types so easy to produce that most people will simply be overwhelmed by messages and find it difficult to sort through this barrage to make meaningful personal decisions. I do have advice to offer on this issue (return to RSS and follow those you trust), but I will save longer advocacy for a future post.
The issue of being overwhelmed by content is not new, but the quantity is ramping up and AI content generation will likely make this trend even more significant. This post addresses this issue from the perspective of a content creator. I author three specific blogs with two focused on technology in education and one more general content. While I believe I have a credible background for commenting on technology in education and making recommendations and creating tutorials, when are my expertise and experience really that valuable? For example, why should a learner follow bloggers or search for relevant content when AI sources will generate credible tutorials and discuss this content with you when requested? I recognize that AI can drift off course and a tool such as ChatGPT is not a good source for recent topics because it was trained a year or so ago, but for established, factual content, AI does a credible job.
I do not intend to quit writing, but thinking about the issue of relevance is probably important. I do think there is still a role for experience and expertise. I also think there is an important role for analysis. Factual content should be easy for AI (yes I can point to specific examples of errors. Last night I asked BARD to provide a description of Target Field while I was at a Twins game. The service did a great job, but claimed that Target Field has a retractable roof which I can guarantee it does not have.), but when there is a substantial body of content for an AI service to access, factual errors will become rare for topics that generate consistent descriptions.
Here is one observation that may be relevant. I find the data generated by my blogs interesting to consider. Which posts generate the most interest? Again, I think I have the credentials to write authoritatively about issues related to technology use in teaching and learning. However, the most popular post I have written by far was and continues to be about a visit my wife and I made to the Amish Greenhouses of southern Minnesota. I wrote this post in 2019 and I have comment on related issues since (what about photographing the Amish) and even this year this post remains the most popular thing I have written.
Why? I can only guess, but I think this post filled a unique niche providing information on a topic that continues to be difficult to find elsewhere. The Amish be a function of their personal beliefs are unlikely to use online sources to advertise their business ventures. You can find simple listening, but very little of any depth including images of just what these greenhouses are like. Gardeners in the Spring are interested in inexpensive places to purchase quality plants and the lure of visiting a location allowing interaction with people with a very different world view is an added benefit. As the weekends this time of year approach, the hit count of this post (and followups) jump dramatically. One of the more recent posts included a photo of the hand drawn map showing the farms with greenhouses and this evidently also was of significant value.
So? I guess I write because I like to write and the process teaches me interesting things about myself and the world. Sometimes, I hit on a topic that evidently provides a similar experience for others.
We just returned from our annual trip to the Amish Greenhouses and I can’t resist including a few pictures. I always ask permission when I take photos that could potentially include people. The farmer who arrived to restock one
I am a serious gardner and I start the seeds for my vegetable plants inside before transplanting. I am interested in how greenhouses go about their busness. I asked Google Bard about a specific topic that interested me. Because Bard is sometimes regarded as factually suspect, let me offer my personal observation on the question I asked. The vegetable plants sold by the Amish appear to be started at the greenhouses from seed. The flowers are either started from plugs or purchased as potted plants from greenhouse wholesalers.
Do the Amish raise their plants from seed?
The Amish do raise plants in their greenhouses from seeds. They also sell plants that they have propagated from other plants. In some cases, they may also buy plants from other growers.
The Amish are known for their commitment to quality and sustainability. They use only natural methods to grow their plants, and they do not use any pesticides or herbicides. They also take great care in selecting the seeds that they use.
The Amish greenhouses in Minnesota are a great place to find high-quality plants at an affordable price. The plants are grown with care and attention, and they are sure to thrive in your home or garden.
Here are some more details about how the Amish raise plants in their greenhouses: They use only natural methods to grow their plants. They do not use any pesticides or herbicides. They take great care in selecting the seeds that they use. The plants are grown with care and attention. They are sure to thrive in your home or garden.
If you are looking for high-quality plants at an affordable price, I encourage you to visit an Amish greenhouse in Minnesota. You won’t be disappointed.
Social bookmarking is a method of saving, organizing, and sharing web pages or online resources that you find useful or interesting. It allows users to store bookmarks or links to web pages on a social bookmarking website, rather than saving them in their web browser’s bookmarking tool.
The process typically involves creating an account on a social bookmarking site and then adding bookmarks by submitting the URL of a webpage along with a title, description, and relevant tags or keywords. These bookmarks are usually public and can be viewed and accessed by other users of the social bookmarking site.
One of the key features of social bookmarking is the ability to discover and explore content based on the recommendations and interests of other users. Users can browse through popular bookmarks, search for specific topics or tags, and subscribe to the bookmarks of other users whose interests align with their own.
Social bookmarking can be a valuable tool for organizing and managing online resources, as it provides a centralized platform for storing and accessing bookmarks from any device with an internet connection. It also enables collaboration and knowledge sharing, as users can follow each other, comment on bookmarks, and engage in discussions around specific topics.
I use several social bookmarking services and this post concerns MEMEX. This service offers some unique capabilities not available in what I would describe as first-generation services (e.g., Diigo). Memex (Memex garden for desktop and Memex Go for tablet) is really designed for collaboration. Wnat I mean here is that individuals share back and forth with other members of a team. Among the shared features when used in this way is discussion/commenting. I don’t really want things to work that way when sharing with others I don’t know because I don’t want to have to moderate comments. I simply want to make the resources I have generated available.
Memex provides a way for me to create what the service refers to as Spaces that are categories of resources I have created. I can share access that is read only. Others can explore the resources within a space, use AI to generate summaries of the resources to see if further investigation might be useful, and use the link to move to the original source. Memex should allow my personal highlights and annotations to be shared as well, but I would have had to indicate that I wanted each individual highlight or annotation to be public as each was generated. The default is private and my collection is too large to make the thousands of such existing additions public as this point. New additions to this collection will include public annotations,
Here is a page that contains links to the Spaces I have generated to this point. As already stated Memex is really designed for a different model of sharing and sharing read-only content is not the way developers imagined the service being used.
The content within a Space appears as shown below. I have applied the AI summarization tool to generate a summary for the first bookmark (Critical thinking stems ….) filed as part of the space Instructional materials. The idea is that a user would generate summaries of articles that generate interest based on the article titles and then follow up by access the articles that seem useful.
The highlights I generated for a different article are accessed with a different icon and offer a different way to make the decision to access the full article.
In summary, what I hope to provide here is a way to learn something about this social bookmarking tool and to take advantage of the time I have invested in using this system to accumulate online resources I have found useful. Page that links to individual Spaces.
You can make cognition as simple or complex as you want, but for me, learning boils down to thinking about experiences and being an effective educator boils down to encouraging and perhaps directing this thinking in students.
Research conducted by educational and cognitive psychologists provides some ideas about how this directing and encouraging might be accomplished. I always emphasize the “might” in my writing. Simply put, learning must be accomplished by the learner and another person or an external task can only work when a learner engages with that person or that task.
I find the research cognitive psychologists conduct incredibly useful in understanding what it takes to accomplish learning and based on this understanding how educators and learners might then proceed to be more successful. Just as every gardener does not have to study botany and chemistry to achieve a great harvest of tomatoes, not every researcher must immerse herself or himself in the details and depth of research to be a successful educational practitioner. Some practitioners may be fascinated with how understanding and retention are accomplished and others just may want to know what tasks to assign that are usually productive. As an academic retiree, I spend some time as a translator between these two types of individuals. I would also propose that the interaction of these two groups is important because ideas flow in both directions. For science-based approaches to change and improve both groups should be willing to share their perspectives and be thoughtful in interpreting the ideas presented to them.
A couple of years ago I became interested in a group of online services that were developed to improve the educational value of online content (web pages and videos). I developed my own way of describing what these services were developed to accomplish. It seemed that these services were designed to transform informational content into learning experiences and this was accomplished by layering different elements or tasks on the original content. Layering seemed the correct description because these services could not actually modify the content originally shared by content creators for ethical and legal reasons, but what the service could do was take the feed from the creator’s service and add elements on top. Elements were additions that could encourage important cognitive behaviors in a learner. I typically describe these elements as external tasks that encourage cognitive or mental behaviors. This description is similar to what others call generative activities (to be accurate generative activities are sometimes described as requiring the creation of a product, but the idea of an external task to influence cognitive behavior is the same). Questions are my favorite example of an external activity that can be added to encourage a variety of important thinking (internal) behaviors. For example, if you want a learner to link a new concept to everyday experiences the concept is useful in understanding, you might ask the learner to provide examples that show the application of the concept. Many learners may do this without the question, but the question increases the likelihood more learners will work to identify such connections with their existing experiences. Those who think about instruction in this way may describe what they are doing as designing instruction. What are the cognitive tasks that are important in learning a certain thing and what external activities might be added to the exposure to the input of demonstrations and other inputs to increase the probability these cognitive behaviors occur?
For example, what external tasks would increase the likelihood of:
Knowledge activation – what do I already know that is relevant
Elaboration – how does this input fit with what I know and what might it imply
Comprehension monitoring – do I understand, does this apply as I think it does
Retrieval practice – what makes this easier to retrieve when it is appropriate
Depending on the specific service, the elements that layering services provided included annotations, highlighting, questions, and discussion prompts. Annotations could include additional material such as examples, translations, or instructions. Questions could be open-ended or multiple-choice. A few of these elements could also be added by the learner (highlights and annotations) so elements provided to the designer could be used to encourage specific use of the elements available to students.
The application of this approach to AI-assisted study behavior
My interests seem to occur in waves. There was the layering wave and I, like so many others, have launched into an AI in education wave. AI has rapidly taken over most of the online discussions I follow. AI can be applied in many ways, but I think at this time one of the most productive is study behavior. One of my core interests has always been study behavior. I define study behavior broadly as everything that follows the initial exposure to new experiences. Note-taking in class occurs after the initial exposure. The questions a teacher asks or the discussions that are encouraged with peers during class occur after the initial exposure. Then, there are all of the activities, required and voluntary, students engage in on their own. For those of us outside of a formal educational setting, we may engage in such activities as taking notes or highlighting what we read to enhance the benefit of pure exposure to new material.
My new interest is in how AI tools can be applied as a tutor or skilled peer to improve the study experience. There is a good deal of overlap between the approach I have been taking with promoting layering services and now with AI tutoring. Tutoring is possibly the best way to assist a learner, but tutoring is expensive and access is not always available. If we consider what a tutor does for a learner and also take the approach I describe as identify productive external tasks that promote learning, we may find similar opportunities when treating some AI services as a tutor.
What I am proposing here is not that novel and efforts to create smart tutors have generated commercial and research interest for years and presently by organizations with connections to education (Google, Khan Academy). What I think I can add are some ideas about using an available AI tool (ChatPDF) right now to explore this capacity.
ChatPDF as the name implies allows an AI-assisted interaction with a PDF that you upload. Focusing AI on a specifically designated resource has both advantages and disadvantages. With studying, you are often studying something specific – a specific resource. The information you are encountering might be available from many other sources, but if you are a student, your responsibility can be defined in terms of specific sources. The advantage I have found with using a specific resource rather than “general knowledge” with present AI applications is that my interaction seems more accurate with a target source. I have less challenges with an AI chat service wandering off and offering content that is identifiably erroneous. This will likely change as improvements continue, but for now there are problems. The disadvantage of targeting a specific source is that aspects of studying involve going beyond the information provided to speculate about examples and applications not presented in the target material. When you constrain the interaction to a source, I have found AI struggles with this type of expectation. AI tools now available can do many impressive things, but you do need to have a sense of what is reasonable to expect and what problems might occur.
I recognize that many resources a student encounters are not provided as pdfs (e.g., a textbook). I have no immediate workaround for this challenge so I offer this post as a recommendation for exploration. I predict this is what is coming and that there are opportunities available now in specific situations. For my own exploration, I have been using the content I wrote. I want to make certain I understand the content I am applying AI to investigate at a deep level so I can evaluate what the AI offers me as a learner. I have authored a couple of textbooks and I was able to take the word processing file of a chapter, save it as a pdf, and then upload it to ChatPDF (here is the chapter if you want to submit it yourself and mimic my prompts).
As I explored ChatPDF and thinking about arguing the service could act as a tutor, I decided that that comparison to a professional tutor might be a bit much. Perhaps, more accurately, the AI service could be described as acting like a capable peer. A talented peer would be helpful and accurate most of the time, but you might also expect that sometimes you would find things your peer did not quite get as well as you did and still find it helpful to continue to study with this individual.
What follows are some of my interactions with the chapter I uploaded using ChatPDF. I label the material in the following may – Comment, Prompt, and AI – so you can interpret the various examples I provide. Remember that if the AI presents a question and the learner responds, the question is the AI presenting and the answer is the learner returning a Prompt. Prompts are what the learner submits and AI is always what the service replies in the material that follows. The idea with these examples is to offer some insights into how this tool could be used by a learner to assist them in improving their understanding and retention of content. Unlike a human tutor, a learner must prompt the AI system to create the interaction. However, the system is quite versatile and it is worth the time to just explore and see what it will do. As you will see, the system allows a conversation to continue through several interactions so there may be multiple prompts and responses that continue on the same initial theme. This would be the way a student and tutor interact.
ChatPDF Examples
[Comment] Gagne’s 9 events, a very popular model of instructional design, suggests a learning experience begin with an event intended to capture learner attention. To me, using ChatPDF after reading assigned content is a study experience that would not typically include this element, but just to offer an example of how an AI service might generate such an event see the following.
[Prompt] Identifying something from this chapter that will likely surprise me.
[AI] Something surprising and interesting idea from this chapter is the concept of “personal theories,” which are individual beliefs or mental models that people develop based on their experiences and observations. These personal theories can sometimes be flawed or inaccurate, and may lead to inert knowledge if they are not challenged or corrected by more formal, accurate theories learned in an educational setting. This highlights the importance of not just teaching information, but also helping students to develop critical thinking skills and the ability to evaluate their own beliefs and assumptions.
[Comment] Activate existing knowledge. Events two and three in Gagne’s model are to identify goals and activate relevant existing knowledge. Again, I am focusing here on how a tutor might guide study, but again I will show a use of the AI tutor that accomplish such goals and with this example I will show how a learner could followup as one might with a human tutor.
[Prompt] What are the most important ideas I should learn from this chapter?
[AI] This chapter covers several key ideas related to the nature of learning and the thinking processes necessary to produce learning. Some of the most important ideas include understanding how students learn, what skills and knowledge they should acquire, and how to design effective learning tasks that promote meaningful learning. Additionally, we discuss the cognitive system at both a detailed and conceptual level, identifying core functions that contribute to student learning. Finally, we emphasize the importance of considering the limitations of the cognitive system when designing instruction.
[Prompt] What are questions I should be able to answer to show I have learned these important ideas?
[AI] To demonstrate your understanding of the important ideas covered in this chapter, you might be able to answer questions such as:
What are some key factors that influence how students learn?
How can you design learning tasks that promote meaningful learning?
What are some core functions of the cognitive system that contribute to student learning?
Why is it important to consider the limitations of the cognitive system when designing instruction?
How can you use your understanding of how students learn and what skills and knowledge they should acquire to inform your teaching practice?
[Prompt] Let me pick one of these questions to see if I understand.
[AI] Sure, feel free to pick any of the questions I provided earlier and I’ll do my best to help you answer it!
[Prompt] What are some limitations of the cognitive system that educators should consider when designing instruction?
Learners can easily become overloaded when learning something new. Their existing knowledge may also not provide necessary background knowledge and they need time to process new ideas. If more and more information is added before students have time to think, they will miss things when they become overloaded.
[AI] You did a good job summarizing the idea that learners can become overloaded when presented with too much information at once. It is important for educators to consider the limitations of the cognitive system when designing instruction, such as the limited capacity of working memory and the importance of providing sufficient time for learners to process new information. By taking these limitations into account, educators can design instruction that is more effective and helps learners avoid becoming overloaded.
[Comments] One of the easiest uses of AI is to use it to ask and respond to questions. You can test your understanding of a claim you make or ask the service to present you with questions. The wording of the prompts is important in getting the service to interact with you in the way you want. Read the way I ask the service to present me with a series of multiple-choice questions carefully.
[Prompt] Is the limit of short term memory what I can remember the next day
[AI] According to page 3 of this PDF, there is a limit to how long information will be maintained in working memory without continued attention. This means that the limit of short-term memory is not necessarily what you can remember the next day, but rather how much information you can hold in your mind at any one time without actively rehearsing or attending to it.
[Prompt] If I am a teacher, how can I provide a form of metacognition for a student when that student cannot provide it for himself?
[AI] As a teacher, you can provide metacognitive support to students who may not be able to provide it for themselves. One way to do this is by modeling metacognitive strategies and explicitly teaching students how to use them. For example, you might demonstrate how to monitor comprehension while reading by thinking aloud and sharing your thought process with the class. You could also provide prompts or questions that encourage students to reflect on their own learning, such as “What did you learn from this activity?” or “What strategies did you use to solve this problem?” Additionally, you could encourage peer-to-peer discussions where students can share their own insights and perspectives on the learning process. By providing these types of supports, you can help students develop their metacognitive skills and become more effective learners.
[Prompt] Ask me a short essay question based on the content of this chapter.
[AI] How can teachers help students to develop critical thinking skills and avoid the phenomenon of “inert knowledge”? Provide specific examples of instructional strategies that can be used in the classroom to promote active learning and meaningful application of new information.
[Prompt] Remind students they learned information relevant to a novel problem in class as part of challenging them with a new problem to solve.
[AI] This statement aligns with the concept of “transfer” discussed in the chapter on “Inert Knowledge.” Transfer refers to the ability to apply knowledge and skills learned in one context to new situations or problems. One way that teachers can promote transfer is by explicitly connecting new problems or tasks to previously learned information or skills. By reminding students of what they have already learned and how it relates to the current problem, teachers can help students make connections and apply their knowledge in a more meaningful way. This can also help to avoid the phenomenon of inert knowledge, where students may have acquired information but are unable to use it effectively in new situations.
[Comment] A limitation is revealed in the following interaction. The tutor asks a question requesting an example and the example given is not something the tutor understands to be a part of the chapter.
[Prompt] Ask me a short essay question based on this chapter
[AI]] How can the concept of “inert knowledge” impact student learning, and what strategies can teachers use to help students avoid this phenomenon? Provide specific examples to support your answer.
[Prompt] A parent knows that young children may commit some bad behaviors to get his parents attention, but typically parents respond to such misbehaviors anyway.
[AI] I’m sorry, but I’m not sure how this statement relates to the chapter on “Inert Knowledge” and learning strategies. Is there a specific question or topic you would like me to address?
[Prompt] Generate 10 multiple choice questions for this document. Number the questions and allow me to provide an answer for each number. Do not provide answers I can see.
[AI] Sure, here are 10 multiple choice questions based on the document:
What is metacognition?
a) The capacity to direct and control our own cognitive behavior
b) The ability to memorize information quickly
c) The process of learning through repetition
d) The use of external tasks to support weak cognition
What is the common challenge when working with a group of learners?
a) Meeting individual needs when working with a group
b) Encouraging students to work independently
c) Providing enough resources for all students
d) Ensuring that all students have the same level of knowledge
What is an example of metacognitive control?
a) Monitoring your own understanding of the material
b) Memorizing information without understanding it
c) Repeating information until it is learned
d) Using external tasks to support cognition
What is metacognitive knowledge?
a) Personal insights regarding the self and tasks and potential strategy options
b) Memorized information about a subject area
c) The ability to repeat information quickly and accurately
d) The use of external tasks to support cognition
How can teachers provide metacognitive support to students?
a) By modeling metacognitive strategies and explicitly teaching students how to use them
b) By providing lectures without any interaction from students
c) By assigning homework without any guidance or feedback
d) By providing multiple-choice tests only
What is an example of an external task that may support weak metacognition?
a) Study questions
b) Group discussions
c) Peer-to-peer feedback
d) Individual reflection
What does effective tool use require?
a) Recognizing task demands, personal strengths and weaknesses, and insight necessary to recognize and respond when a plan does not achieve expected results.
b) Memorizing information quickly without understanding it.
c ) Repeating information until it is learned.
d) Using external tasks to support cognition.
What is the capacity to direct and control our own cognitive behavior?
a) Metacognition
b) External tasks
c) Cognitive processing
d) Learning strategies
What is the importance of understanding how students learn?
a) It helps teachers design effective learning experiences for students
b) It helps teachers memorize information quickly
c) It helps teachers assign homework without any guidance or feedback
d) It helps teachers provide multiple-choice tests only
[Prompt] 1 a
[AI] Correct! Metacognition is the capacity to direct and control our own cognitive behavior.
[Prompt] 2 a
[AI] Correct! The common challenge when working with a group of learners is meeting individual needs when working with a group.
etc.
[Comment] Here is a sequence generated when I asked for help understanding, but was unclear about whether the AI bot “understands” a concept in the same way I use the concept. For example, I understand that inert has to do with what context triggers the use of knowledge. Hence, a student who understands the meaning of a word on a test or when asked in class would not necessarily access the same knowledge when in a different context (at home reading a book) that does not trigger “school content”. This seems how I used the term when writing the cognitive chapter. I ended up trying to negotiate an interpretation by interacting with AI as tutor which while not generating a simple clarification I might have wanted was fairly sophisticated. I found myself arguing with the AI service about the meaning of something I had written, but this interaction was interesting.
[Prompt] Help me understand inert learning. What does the term mean and provide an example.
[AI] Inert learning refers to the phenomenon where students may learn information but are unable to apply it in new or unfamiliar contexts. In other words, they may be able to repeat information but are not able to use it in a meaningful way. An example of inert learning might be a student who memorizes a list of vocabulary words for a test but is unable to use those words in conversation or writing outside of the test context. This can happen when students are taught information in isolation, without opportunities to practice applying it in different contexts or with different types of problems. To avoid inert learning, it is important for teachers to provide opportunities for students to practice using new information in different ways and contexts.
[Prompt] What do you mean by test context? What do you mean by a meaningful way?
[AI] By “test context,” I mean the specific situation in which the student is asked to demonstrate their knowledge, such as on a quiz or exam. In this context, the student may be able to recall information that they have memorized, but they may not be able to apply it in a more complex or unfamiliar situation.
By “meaningful way,” I mean using the information in a way that is relevant and useful to the student’s life or goals. For example, if a student is learning about fractions, being able to use that knowledge to solve real-world problems involving measurements or cooking would be a meaningful application of that knowledge.
[Prompt] Would the concept of inert knowledge predict a student might be able to provide a correct meaning for a word from the test if a teacher asked for a definition, but not when the student encountered the word while reading at home?
[AI] Yes, that is a possible example of inert knowledge. If a student is able to provide a correct definition of a word on a test or quiz, but is unable to recognize or use the word in context when reading at home, it suggests that the student has not fully internalized the meaning of the word and is not able to apply it in new or unfamiliar situations. This could be due to a lack of practice using the word in different contexts or because the student has only learned the definition in isolation without connecting it to other knowledge or experiences.
[Comment] The AI tutor is versatile and you can get it to interact with you in different ways. In the content that follows, I ask the service to generate question prompts and then an outline of ideas from the chapter as might be included in a PowerPoint presentation. I then interact with the tutor based on these prompts and parts of the PowerPoint outline.
[Prompt] Write three discussion prompts based on this chapter.
[AI] Sure, here are three discussion prompts based on the chapter:
1. What are some examples of boundaries that exist in your own experiences, and how have you crossed them?
2. How might crossing boundaries between different grade levels or schools impact your learning and personal growth?
3. In what ways can using primary sources enhance your understanding of a topic compared to using a textbook?
[Prompt] Write a response to each of these discussion prompts.
[AI] 1. Personally, I found the ideas presented in this chapter to be very relatable to my own experiences with learning. I think that the concept of crossing boundaries between different experiences is particularly relevant, as it highlights the importance of being open to new perspectives and ideas. In my own learning, have found that being willing to explore new topics and engage with different viewpoints has been key to my growth and development.
2. In terms of encouraging students to engage in meaningful learning, I think that it is important for teachers to create a supportive and inclusive classroom environment. This can involve providing opportunities for students to collaborate and share their ideas, as well as offering personalized feedback and guidance. Additionally, I think that it is important for teachers to be flexible and adaptable in their teaching methods, in order to meet the diverse needs and interests of their students.
3. One example of how the thinking processes discussed in this chapter have helped me in my own learning is through my experiences with critical thinking. By learning to question assumptions and evaluate evidence, I have been able to develop a more nuanced and informed perspective on a variety of topics. Additionally, I have found that being able to think critically has helped me to communicate my ideas more effectively, both in writing and in conversation.
[Prompt] What is wrong with reading a textbook from a tablet or computer
[AI] Research has shown that reading from a screen can result in overconfidence and poorer comprehension compared to reading from a paper source. While there are multiple hypotheses as to why this difference exists, some evidence points to metacognition. It is presently unclear why this happens, but external performance and more practice reading long form content from a screen may help compensate for the lack of insight into comprehension. However, it is important to note that this research is not suggesting that reading from a tablet or computer is inherently bad, but rather that it may require more effort and attention to ensure comprehension and avoid overconfidence.
[Prompt] I know that I should try to read from my phone while I am driving. Is this an example of working memory overload that may result in an accident?
[AI] Reading from a device while driving is not recommended as it can lead to distractions and accidents. Research has shown that reading from a screen can result in overconfidence and poorer comprehension compared to reading from a paper source. It is presently unclear why this happens, but external performance and more practice reading long form content from a screen may help compensate for the lack of insight into comprehension. Metacognition, or thinking about thinking, is important for effective tool use and the skilled learner can plan to avoid difficulties or compensate for problems. However, it is important to prioritize safety while driving and avoid any distractions, including reading from a device.
[Prompt] Create the text that would appear on PowerPoint slides used to explain the memory stores and processes and cognitive process that make up the model of cognition used in this chapter.
[AI] Slide 1: Introduction to the Cognitive Perspective
– Describes learning and thinking activities in terms of multiple memory stores
– Processes or mental actions used in thinking and learning
– Executive mechanisms used to evaluate and control processes
Slide 2: Memory Stores
– Three memory stores: sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory
– Sensory memory holds information briefly
– Working memory maintains information for a short period of time
-Long-term memory stores information for a longer period of time
Slide 3: Mental Tools
– Learners have mental tools to accomplish thinking and learning tasks
– Four mental tools: Attend, Link, Elaborate, and Retrieve
– Attend maintains ideas in working memory
– Link establishes connections between information units – Elaborate adds meaning to information
– Retrieve accesses information from long-term memory
Slide 4: Evaluation and Control
– Learners use executive mechanisms to evaluate and control processes
– Determine whether processes have accomplished intended goals
– Prioritize certain learning activities based on cognitive constructs
[Prompt] When the slide says the mental tool of attend keeps information in short term memory, I think this means that when we think about something we keep what we are thinking about in our consciousness longer. Is this correct?
[AI] Yes, that’s correct. The mental tool of attend is used to maintain certain ideas in consciousness, which is also known as working memory. This helps to keep the information in our consciousness for a longer period of time, allowing us to think about it more deeply and process it more effectively.
[Prompt] When the slide says sensory memory holds information briefly, just how much time is that? I think it a couple of seconds at most. Is that correct?
[AI] Yes, that’s correct. Sensory memory holds information for a very brief period of time, usually just a few seconds at most. After that, the information either fades away or is transferred to short-term memory.
Summary comment: I hope these examples offer insight into the flexibility of ChatPDF as tutor. Learning how the AI services work takes some experimentation and most services offer the opportunity to experiment without cost. One issue I must acknowledge is that much of what I write about assumes a motivated learner. Thinking is work and work requires interest, resolve, and incentives. None of us is probably motivated to learn some of what others expect us to know. Accepting this reality, I tend to like what Sal Kahn said in defending mastery approaches to learning. Approaches that improve the success of learning address at least an important aspect of the motivational component of education. We are more interested in learning when our efforts result in success than when these efforts are frustrating and often unsuccessful. [my interpretation]
One of the issues associated with the advances in the application of digital technology is that the rest of society can’t keep up. For example, advances allow new services and opportunities before the political process can implement laws that redistrict damaging applications. Once applications are widely used, it is difficult to implement constraints that may prove burdensome or expensive for citizens and companies that have invested in new capabilities.
Education (K12 and higher education) faces similar and related issues. Rapid advances move the workplace faster than educational institutions can generate skilled practitioners and educated consumers to contribute and benefit from new opportunities. In K12, there is a time delay caused by the need to generate expectations (e.g., standards) that guide what exactly should be taught in specific areas of the curriculum and at specific grade levels, and the delay in hiring or developing skills and knowledge in the appropriate faculty members. For long-term commitments, the delay is exacerbated by the time span required to first develop future teachers with the appropriate skill sets and experience.
We closely follow K12 expectations in North Dakota because we worked for many years before retiring in North Dakota and were involved in working with preservice and inservice educators. What is happening in North Dakota may be of little interest to educators in other states. I raise what is happening in ND because education leaders within the state have made the claim that they are the first to mandate, at the insistence of the legislature, universal coding and cyber security experiences for all students. Even more recent expectations were just established by the state legislature providing another example of politicians requiring commitments from educators.
One of the components of the ND expectations that may be of use to educators in other states are some of the concrete descriptions of what educational experiences are required of educators. Aside from the standards (which were actually established in 2019, but now have a political mandate for demonstrated application), there are guidelines for educator credentials/certificates. As you might expect, various organizations (colleges and other) are seeing opportunities when only professional development is required and practicing educators need to catch up.
North Dakota CS and Cybersecurity Credentials (guidelines extracted from the document I link to above)
The NDDPI issues three levels of Computer Science (CS) and Cybersecurity Credentials. Each requires a valid teaching license issued by the ESPB.
Level 1 – Allows the recipient to teach any CS or Cyber-related course, including advanced courses, at any grade level corresponding with the recipient’s teaching license. Applicants must complete one of the following:
200 or more hours of CS or Cyber training; or
15 or more credits in CS or Cyber; or
3 stacks of micro-credentials in CS or Cyber.
Level 2 – Allows the recipient to teach introductory and intermediate-level CS or Cyber-related courses, as determined by the department, at any grade level corresponding with the recipient’s teaching license. Applicants must complete one of the following:
40 or more hours of CS or Cyber training; or
6 or more credits in CS or Cyber; or
1 stack of micro-credentials in CS or Cyber.
Level 3 – Allows the recipient to teach integrated CS or Cyber-related instruction in other contents at any grade level corresponding with the recipient’s teaching license. The recipient also may teach CS or Cyber-related courses in grades kindergarten through grade eight as applicable to the recipient’s teaching license. Applicants must complete one of the following:
15 or more hours of CS or Cyber training; or
3 micro-credentials in CS or Cyber.
I would argue that while these expectations are being promoted as ground breaking and innovative, the skills and knowledge expected of educators are already lagging behind significant developments in what technology now is and the impact it is having. For example, AI tools now available to all have already changed what coding is and who can code. With the development of ChatGPT, a large language model trained by OpenAI, the relevance of teaching coding in the classroom has shifted. There is still a need for coding education, albeit with a shift towards teaching transferable skills and working with pre-existing machine learning models. Natural language coding is also becoming more prevalent, allowing programmers to write code in a way that is similar to how they would communicate with another person.
For additional reading on the expectations of teaching coding in K12, I would point those interested to this paper in Technology Review. This article provides a history of the emphasis on coding in K12 offering insights into what was taught, who benefited, and how the perceived importance of coding in the classroom has varied over time. Unlike the importance of technology in general that has grown linearly, the interest in coding waned after a peak in the 1980-90s which at the time emphasized vocational opportunities and now has been on an upward trajectory promoting benefits for all again with an expanded emphasis on computational thinking. The Technology Review article suggests that a technology emphasis was often justified as an equity issue encouraging women and minority students to learn the skills necessary to compete in lucrative areas of the economy, but educational efforts were typically disappointing in increasing more equitable access to more financially beneficial employment.
The applications of technology in society represent an aspect of education that presents serious challenges to the education establishment.
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