Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian developmental psychologist working in the early 1900s, is a classic example of a scholar whose ideas were much more influential after his death than during his lifetime. Vygotsky is regarded as a social constructivist implying that interactions between the learner and others are important in the learner's construction of personal understanding. Here is a brief summary of some of Vygotsky’s central ideas (Harley, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978):
Private speech. We have all seen children and even adults talk to themselves as they perform a difficult task. Vygotsky believed this externalized speech was quite functional as an “external” guidance mechanism. Vygotsky also proposed that learners use the speech of others as they solve problems. Gradually these forms of guidance become internalized as silent “inner speech.”
Zone of proximal development. Think of a set of related educational tasks positioned along a continuum. At one end of the continuum are tasks the learner can perform with ease. At the other end are tasks that are far beyond the capability of the learner. Between these areas are tasks that the learner can perform with the proper support. This area, called the zone of proximal development, defines the tasks where instruction is likely to be most productive. Support usually implies adult guidance or perhaps the cooperation of a more experienced peer. There may be other forms of support that also allow learners to achieve success. With experience, learners become capable of independent functioning.
Scaffolding. Scaffolding is doing some of the work for students until they develop the capability to do it for themselves. Such mechanisms might include reminders, pronouncing or explaining words students do not understand, clear step-by-step instructions, and demonstrations of tasks to be performed. Unlike behavioral approaches, which help less skilled learners by creating a simplified version of the task, scaffolding proposes simplifying the learner’s role in accomplishing the actual task.
Vygotsky’s theoretical ideas are illustrated in several other ideas emphasized in this book—for example, emphasizing the teacher’s role as supporting learning rather than dispensing knowledge, the value of learning in cooperative groups, and the importance of engaging students with authentic tasks. Even the concept that tasks should not overload the learner which we presented in this chapter are consistent with the concept of the zone of proximal development.