Metacognition -

Here are some comments concerning the capacity of the learner to think about thinking that extend the short description provided in the Primer.

The learning behavior of students has the potential to be self-regulated or strategic. The term used to describe this capacity is metacognition (Brown, 1981, 1987; Flavell, 1987; Garner, 1987; Paris & Winograd, 1990). As an experienced learner, you are likely to demonstrate metacognition even though you may not have applied this term to your own behavior. You consider what is expected of you and adjust your behavior accordingly. When you know that an instructor uses essay exams rather than multiple choice examinations, you may adjust your study strategy based on past experiences indicating the types of cognitive tasks you will be required to accomplish and your own skill in performing these tasks. What if you are told than an examination is "open book" - would you prepare differently? As a skilled learner, you also likely constantly evaluate your own performance. It is something like attempting to answer the question - How is it going? The answer to the question leads to varying courses of action. If one is studying for tomorrow's chemistry examination, the "how is it going" question may take the form "If I go to bed now, what grade am I likely to receive tomorrow?" Depending on the self determined answer, the decision may be to keep working or stop. While reading a chapter in a history textbook, the "how is it going" question may take the form "Is this making any sense?". Perhaps the answer in this case is "no", but this simple determination allows the simple remedy "reread that last paragraph". It turns out that metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive control functions are quite important to academic achievement. More capable students tend to be more strategic and more efficient.

Metacognitive knowledge

So, metacognitive knowledge consists of personal insights into how cognitive tasks such as memory or writing are accomplished, about what makes particular tasks difficult or easy, and about personal cognitive characteristics and capabilities. We all have such knowledge, accurate or not. Metacognitive knowledge is relevant to both academic and professional life. In some cases, this knowledge is the intended result of direct instruction. We are expected to learn strategies for figuring our the meaning of an unfamiliar word, to learn how to research and write a position paper, and to learn how to study for an essay examination. Other metacognitive knowledge is picked up less directly. Some students may realize that math is a particularly difficult subject for them. Students may also figure out that instructors are more likely to ask examination questions on topics covered in class than on textbook topics that were not discussed. Such knowledge of task and self can be activated in the process of strategy selection.

Metacognitive control functions

Metacognitive control functions are demonstrated in planning, regulating, and evaluating behaviors (Paris and Lindauer, 1982). Planning concerns decision making before beginning a project; regulating involves adjustments made while working on the task; and evaluating has to do with decisions made once the project has been completed.

Metacognitive control functions in combination with metacognitive knowledge have great educational significance. As educators we expect learners to acquire the capacity to function independently. Consider the roles of planning, regulating, and evaluating as they might apply to some of the research and writing tasks involved in a student's preparation of a paper for a history class:

• Planning: The student might begin by outlining an initial set of issues to investigate and identify some information resources relevant to these issues. What makes a good question? What information sources relevant to such sources should be examined?
• Regulating: As the student examines the sources, she must locate specific information related to the issues to be addressed and determine if enough information is available to attempt writing the paper. If no information turns up related to some key issue, she may decide to find additional sources, modify the initial topic of the paper, or abandon the original idea entirely.
• Evaluating: As the student writes the paper, she must determine whether the text meets acceptable standards for spelling and grammar and whether she has presented the intended ideas in an organized and persuasive fashion. When has the task been completed?

Metacognitive control function also play a major role in the self-directed learning we often describe as studying. Thomas and Rohwer (1986) describe study behavior as effortful, private, self-managed activities, often operating with little in the way of external guidance regarding what is to be accomplished or what level of mastery is required. If you think carefully about what is (or was) expected of you as a college student, you will note just how much responsibility advanced students must accept. Often, much more material is presented than would be practical to master. Consequently, you must decide what is essential to master and what you can cover more superficially. The nature of future examinations is also vague, and you must make decisions about how your understanding will likely be evaluated. Finally, as you prepare for these examinations, there are few or no concrete ways for you to judge how adequately you have prepared. Do I understand this chapter well enough to go on to the next? Will I be able to solve this type of problem if it appears on the test? All three metacognitive control functions are involved: You must develop study plans, evaluate the adequacy of your understanding, and continually regulate study methods and your allocation of time and attention.

Metacognitive skills related to academic performance often need improvement. Researchers have found that the following problems, among others, are typical:

• Students' study behavior is often passive (rereading textbook assignments). For organizing and emphasizing important content, students commonly rely on techniques such as note taking and highlighting, which are not the most powerful methods.
• Students frequently use a single study approach, even when course material and evaluation procedures vary considerably.
• Students frequently are unaware that they have failed to comprehend material they have read (Baker, 1985; Markman & Gorin, 1981). They also seem unable to predict accurately how they will do on tests covering material that they are studying (Pressley, Snyder, Levin, Murrary & Ghatala, 1987). Thus their regulatory functions, the mechanisms that would allow them to adjust their cognitive behavior "on-the-fly) are suspect. When the awareness of difficulty is suspect, even simple strategies that might address problems - targeted rereading or asking the teacher or a classmate for assistance - are not utilized.